Ethics in Conditioning Research

Pavlov’s experiments on conditioning brought a lot of knowledge and understanding into a process that was once mysterious.  Through Pavlov’s experiments with his dogs, knowledge about unconditioned responses through unconditioned stimulus was brought to light.  Pavlov showed that the dogs who do not learn to salivate to the presence of food could learn to salivate at something neutral, the sound of a bell. This brought a wealth of information about learning and conditioning, to which Pavlov wanted to branch over and apply to humans. Pavlov set up experiments with children in which he would present the children with food.  One child was strapped to a chair and force fed cookies, while another was surgically implanted with a device to collect his saliva. The experiments if done today would violate ethical standards.  This paper is going to review the experiment done on children, cover what violation of ethical standards would have occurred, and provide an alternative method to avoid the ethical violation.

Overview of Experiment

Pavlov’s idea of conditioned reflex came from his experiment with his dogs in which some dogs did not learn. Pavlov observed that children did not salivate whenever they saw food. This was extremely difficult for him to understand because this reflex was hard wired into children. Pavlov provided the child with a bowl of food and then measured the child’s salivary secretions (McLeod, 2007). From this point forward Pavlov discovered that an object or event in which a child learned to associate food would trigger the same response. Pavlov later learned that the children associated food with his lab assistant which was a learned behavior (McLeod, 2007). This was measured by the children at the beginning of the experiment not knowing the lab assistant would bring food, and at one point they began associating the assistant with food after repetition. With this being said, their behavior changed significantly which is a result of learning. 

Ethical Violation

            Pavlov's experiment on conditioning children was a way to show that not just dogs could have conditioned reflexes. During these experiments some children had been operated on to place a device in their cheek to collect their saliva as they ate. In another experiment a child was strapped into a contraption that restricted his movement that only allowed him to move his mouth. These experiments have the same ethical issue that today would prohibit these experiments which is principle E of the ethical code of psychologists (2015). This states that any psychiatrist or psychologist conducting research should respect the person's dignity and privacy (Ethical principles of psychologist and code of conduct, 2015). Pavlov's experiment did not comply with is principle in either experiment, because the children were faced with undignified testing procedures. The fact that one child had a contraption surgically implanted on the side of his face was completely degrading. While the other child was forced to eat cookies while strapped onto a table and while another machine squeezed his hand. This would not be tolerated in research today as a result of the code of conduct that the American Psychological Association has put in place.

Alternative Approach

            When dealing with ethical concerns, one must think of the person’s dignity and privacy.  In this case not respecting the dignity and privacy of the participant is a violation in which one must find an alternative way to meet the ethical code of conduct in today’s standards.  It may have been best if Pavlov just stuck with experiments on animals rather than human subjects at the time.  Pavlov did his best when it came down to the ethical concerns and approaches of dealing with his experiments.  In today’s world however, there are ethical ways in which could become an alternative approach to Pavlov’s experiment.  One alternative could have been that Pavlov uses other means of understanding classical conditioning through the use of models, rats, mice, or other easily available organisms rather than continuing on to the use of humans.   Another alternative is the approach of not altering through surgical or physical means the participant or organism to which would cause physical altercations, thus allowing him to perhaps examine and research without the need to surgery or force.  Pavlov seemed to use ethical standards that would meet current standards in the well-being and aspect of pain and suffering of the animals.  In present-day research attention is brought to mind alternative methods on animal research, thus Russell et al. (1959) describes when possible, living animals are replaced by nonsentient material such as tissue cultures and computer models; mammals are replaced by animals of less well-developed nervous systems; whole animals by decerebrate ones, or by isolated organ systems (Kopaladze, 2000).

Conclusion

            Through experiments done on children in which Pavlov attempted to measure the children’s salivation when presented with food in the same manner that he worked with his dogs. In the experiments done on children ethical violations occurred such as conducting research that did not respect the person's dignity and privacy.  Pavlov could have avoided the ethical violations by conducting experiments on non-humans through using standards that would meet current standards in the well-being and aspect of pain and suffering of the animals.  Additionally Pavlov could have done another alternative approach of not altering through surgical or physical means the participant or organism to which would cause physical altercations, thus allowing him to perhaps examine and research without the need to surgery or force.

References

Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx#

Kopaladze, R. A. (2000). Ivan P. Pavlov's view on vivisection. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 35(4), 266. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/201312993?accountid=35812

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Pavlov's Dogs. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html

How can you measure learning from behaviorist, social cognitive?

            Learning can be measured in a variety of ways depending on which perspective one is using. One could think of learning as the old proverb, "beauty is in the eye of the beholder". What one person sees as a way to measure learning may not work for another. That is what makes psychology so interesting that one can take a little of this theory and a little of that theory and make one of their own.

            In behavioral perspective learning is viewed as more scientific. John Watson was influenced by Pavlov's conditioning experiments to create a theory of conditioning (Schunk, 2012). With having a more scientific approach, one would need to conduct behavioral experiments and collect data to be processed to see if there was any change in behavior. One such experiment is still today viewed as questionable with regard to ethics. This would be Watson's experiment on Little Albert. In summery the experiment took an infant and introduced him to non-threatening items such as a dog and toys. Then showed the infant the objects with a scary sound or mask, thus the infant learned to fear those items.

            In the social cognitive perspective learning is measured by observation. Bandura believed that the conditioning was not a strong measure of learning (Schunk, 2012).  This lead to him discovering the ideas of encouragement. An example is a student struggling with an assignment. The teacher helps the student by showing him how do the assignment then giving him encouragement to do it. By doing this the student is learning to have faith in himself to do the work.

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6^th ed.). Pearson Education

Organizational Psychology and the critical issues for learning theory

How does learning occur?

 

Organizational learning theory seeks to study and understand the processes that lead to changes in organizational knowledge. These changes in organizational knowledge lead to better outcomes for the organization and could encompass a wide range of processes such as environmental, social, and cognitive processes. From the perspective of organizational theory, learning occurs when an organization utilizes new information in a way that results in observable changes in both organizational outcomes and individuals who make up the organization. In this sense, organizational learning theory can be subsumed under the behaviorist perspective because it places emphasis on both observable behavior and the environment - "specifically, how stimuli are arranged and presented and how responses are reinforced."

 

What is the role of memory?

 

As a subset of the behaviorist perspective, organizational learning rests on the assumption that organizations possess corporate intelligence which makes them to be responsive to their environment. As such, information that is considered as useful is retained as part of the organizational repertoire. Within the organizational learning environment, the learner's memory is tested and renewed through periodic, spaced reviews that "maintain the strength of responses in learners' repertoires".

 

What Is the Role of Motivation? 

 

Organizations thrive on the repeated performance of routine tasks in an ever improving manner. Motivation is therefore enhanced by the continuing reinforcement of previous behavior. As such, learners within the organizational setting display motivated behavior because "of the presence of effective reinforcers". Effective reinforcers make it possible for individuals within an organization to recognize certain stimuli and to respond to them. Through the recognition of such antecedent stimuli, individuals within an organization are able to perform tasks either better, faster, or longer.

 

How does transfer occur?

 

According to Schunk (2012), "transfer refers to knowledge and skills being applied in new ways, with new content, or in situations different from where they were acquired". Within an organization therefore, transfer is measured by the ability of individuals to translate new knowledge and information into observable changes. As such, transfer is said to have occurred only when what is learned influences the organization in such a way that visible changes are observed in organizational behavior.

 

Which processes are involved in self-regulation?

 

Self-regulation within the organizational setting describes the various processes through which learners are able to channel their thoughts and behaviors towards the achievement of the organization's goals. Schunk (2012) describes self-regulation at the individual learning level as the capacity for "setting up one's own contingencies of reinforcement; that is, the stimuli to which one responds and the consequences of one's responses". For self-regulation to occur within the organizational environment, systematic procedures must be in place for monitoring learning processes and for ensuring that such learning processes are directed towards desired outcomes.

 

What are the implications for instruction?

 

The function of learning theory is to provide frameworks for studying, understanding, and interpreting learning processes. Within an organization, learning theory describes the spectrum of activities and processes through which new information is acquired, processed, and utilized. In an organizational setting, the implications of theory for instruction are reflected in the methods for passing new information to learners. Theory therefore influences the mode of transferring new information from the instructors to the learners.

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6^th ed.). Pearson Education

Explaining Learning Theory To Clients

Psychological learning theory also known as organizational learning theory is one of the most known as well as influential theories of learning and development in organizations or companies.  This learning theory incorporates basic concepts from different learning theories with the belief that not all learning is accounted for by direct reinforcement.  This learning theory takes into account a social element which argues that individuals learn new things through social interactions by watching people and modeling in order to learn about new behaviors and information. As a result of the incorporation of social elements this theory of learning has broadened the understanding of how learning in individuals works and has become an influential tool for psychologists to use in different fields such as in government or corporations.  This presentation will cover the social learning theory as it applies to the Industrial/organizational field of psychology covering how the basic tenants of the theory influence the study of learning.  The presentation will speak about how the theory can be applied to the I/O psychology field and provide examples of how research methods care used to study learning processes.  Finally the presentation will cover the APA ethical guidelines which would be relevant to the presentation being given.

            In a good learning theory the function of it is to provide a framework for understanding, for studying, and for interpreting how individuals learn as well as the processes associated with learning.  The organizational learning theory according to Schunk (2012), learning occurs when an organization utilizes new information in such a way that it results in observable changes to both individuals that make up the organization and the organization itself.  Learning in individuals does not always produce a change in behavior but the goal of learning in an organization is to make an impact and possibly alter the way things work.  According to Schunk (2012), organizational learning studies theories and models about the way a company learns as well as adapts. Organizations are social by nature requiring interaction on some level in order for the organization to grow and be successful, which requires an understanding on how the company as well as the individuals work there learn.  Organizational learning allows a company to learn through context and history how to improve services and training not only with the current members working there but with future members. Through using organizational learning theory a company can break down different aspects of learning such as observation, experience, reflection and transference in order to find out how the company and individual members learns and apply the information to programs which assist in learning new information. 

            In organizational development a company is able to sense changes or see that things are moving in a certain direction and the organization adapts to the changes in order to survive.  In organizational learning theory influences the study of learning by providing a new aspect to how individuals learn.  In an organization learning is done in order to change behaviors to better a company and the services that the company may provide. Learning theories seek to understand and interpret how individuals learn. In organizational learning it is the same with the exception that the organization itself is also learning. In organizational learning theory it describes the processed an organization and its members go through to acquire new information, process it, and utilize it. The implications of this can be seen in the way individuals learn and pass new information on, from trainer to trainee.  According to Schnunk (2012), a transfer of knowledge or skills like this in which a person applies to new content or in new ways and situations benefits the organization in allowing it to adapt.  The new skills or abilities translates to new information or practices in the organization which results in observable changes in both organization and members.

            Organizational learning theory allows for great promise in organizations as it provides a means for studying the effectiveness of learning in the organization as well as providing different ways in order to increase effective learning and performance.  If for instance, if the company is looking to integrate a new computer system which is completely different from the pen and paper method that they are used to using then there are going to be factors that need to be looked at. An organization is going to want to effectively train individuals on how to use the new system and provide trainers who are proficient with the new system. Organizational learning theory allows the company to look at aspects like providing information on how the change is contributing to the larger good of everyone making the jobs easier so that individuals are more invested and motivated to learn the information.  Additionally, through use of the organizational method researchers can find out information about how timeframes may make learning new information and implementing it hard for the company.  If a company needs to have everyone trained on the new computer system within a week because it is being implemented the following week then the company needs to know how the short timeframe is going to impact the employees and learning the new information.

            As researchers learn information like this they can devise a way to test theories though projects such as how followers may be influenced by strong leader or how individuals retain new information and learn to do new jobs effectively.  The more the researchers are able to observe and experiment the more information they are able to receive about how individuals learn and work in organizations. Argote (1999), states that factors such as learning how groups influence organizational learning provide insight to how a group breaks down work on a project.  Through observing the project researchers are able to study how individuals interact and communicate in the group, they can see strategies, leaders and followers, brainstorming, and motivation as the group works to complete the project.  After completion researchers can evaluate how effective the group was, the group’s performance, the outcome, and the productivity (Argote, 1999).  This allows researchers in organizational psychology to study how the individuals work together and learn from one another, motivating each other, and communicating in order to complete tasks.  In one study done by Bontis, Crossan, and Hulland (2002), the researchers wanted to test empirically the stocks and flows of organizational learning through knowledge being given across an individual, a team, and the organization.  Through this study the researchers were able to show a negative relationship between organizational performance and a misalignment of stocks and flows. 

            In the APA ethical guidelines for the I/O psychology field there are 10 areas of standard conduct (Knapp, 2003).  The areas are generally the same for most fields of psychology dealing with individuals in the nature of learning, helping, or observing.  The first few areas include resolving ethical issues, competence, and human relations which should be some of the fields making concerns because the ease of violation in these areas is of concern for individuals that may not be familiar with the code itself (Knapp, 2003). The rest of the areas including privacy and confidentiality, advertising and other public statements, record keeping, education and training, research and publication, assessment, and therapy.  In I/O psychology it is important to maintain confidentiality with individuals especially when presenting ideas to management of a company about how to better train employees, motivate them, or go about adjusting behavioral issues. Additionally, when psychologists are educating others or researching information confidentiality should be kept which makes it so that one company is not given up in research without its permission.  Ethically if a psychologist wants to publish results of research the company should agree to allow its name to be published or the psychologist should only refer to the company in an anonymous way. There are a few reasons a company may not want to be listed such as propriety information. A researcher has to make sure to maintain confidentiality for both organizations and individuals involved.

Argote, L. (1999). Organizational learning: Creating, retaining and transferring knowledge. Norwell, MA, Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Bontis, N., Crossan, M., Hulland, J. (2002). Managing an organizational learning system by aligning stocks and flows. Journal of Management Studies 39(4). 437-469.

Knapp, D., (2003). The ethical practice of I-O psychology. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist. 40(4). 164-165.

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6^th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Anorexia Disorder

The eating disorder anorexia nervosa is classified as individuals that have a fear of weight gain and thus will over exercise or starves themselves or both to prevent them from gaining any weight. “People with anorexia nervosa have a distorted body image that causes them to see themselves as overweight even when they're dangerously thin” ("American Psychological Association", 2015).  The disorder is typically seen as coming on in adolescence and doesn’t really have a lot to do with food, but rather the person dealing with problems that are difficult in their life or emotions that are difficult so they deal with them in unhealthy ways. Anorexia nervosa is a serious disorder in which the sufferer needs help for otherwise the disorder may continue to progress to the point where the individual loses so much weight they begin to suffer from health problems as a result of it, which can include the death of the person if they continue the weight loss path. There is no cure for anorexia nervosa, but there is a variety of recommended treatments available to help people that suffer from the disorder. The following paper will compare three therapeutic interventions and contrast them in treating anorexia, it will compare the measures of effectiveness, cover symptoms of anorexia, rates of reduction or management, and the approaches that would be recommended to treat this disorder.  The paper will also analyze the neurophysiological underpinnings of disease and examine contemporary attitudes toward the treatments discussed in the paper.

Anorexia Nervosa

Of the individuals that are affected by anorexia nearly 95 percent of them will be female though that doesn't mean that men cannot also develop the psychological disorder (Gentile, 2010). Anorexia nervosa has no known cause, but research studies have found evidence that there may be a genetic component in place that determines a person’s likelihood of developing the disorder.  Gentile (2010), states that researchers have found evidence that implies that the hypothalamus of an individual may have a dysfunction in individuals suffering from the disorder and may be a contributing factor to a person's development of the anorexia. There are many theories about how an individual may develop the anorexia disorder including ideas about an infant being underfed or the infant's mother having maternal depression that contributed to the development of the disorder. The theory that is most favored by psychologists is that the individual suffering from anorexia is suffering from a self-esteem problem and the way that the person perceives themselves is the main contributing factor to the development of the anorexia disorder. In this theory the individual perceives what society demands, such as society wanting thin girls, and then the person will reflect that in order to bring happiness and success to themselves they need to embody the thin perception as that is what they portray in movies, media, and television.  The person will strive to fit the idea that was created that they need to be thin to be happy and successful, the ideal person in society.  The person will strive for this look through the development of anorexia as the individual is striving to be thin at any cost including not eating and over exercising to make this ideal of perfection a reality.

Common Symptoms

Anorexia is a serious eating disorder that can affect a person's psychological as well as physical health. A person that is suffering from anorexia can become underweight severely which leads to problems with depression, and the individual may begin to withdraw from their life and society as a result of it.  People with anorexia disorder tend to be more irritable and prone to mood swings than individuals that don't suffer from the disorder.  According to Gentile (2010), these individuals will be more overly sensitive, having more irritability, and find it hard to interact with others. Other symptoms that individuals may include insomnia that can impact a person's ability to function when awake as the individual may be more tired during times awake, they may be unable to concentrate, and they can experience problems with focusing their attentions. According to Gentile (2010), the most common symptom felt by individuals that suffer from anorexia is the obsession these people with have with food. People are consumed with food, from thoughts about food to having specific habits with food such as eating small pieces at a time, hoarding food, or they may cook large meals at a time for other individuals but not touch a bite of the meal.

People with anorexia will obsess over looks believing that no matter what they are always too fat and thus they have not to eat or constantly over exercise to become thin. Gentile (2010), states that people are overly compliant in life, and lack in adequate self-perception and thus the people strive to achieve perfection and to please others in their life. Individuals that suffer from anorexia tend to be overachievers that exceed themselves through excelling at academics, signing up for a lot of extracurricular activities, and in general overloading and working themselves. Gentile (2010), states that since a person’s physical appearance is important to the individual that has anorexia the person often is a very high achiever in a lot of different areas and their family is often portrayed as perfect as well. The delusions that a person holds about appearance will become evident as the person will refuse to believe what anyone has to say regarding the individual's weight and instead will choose to believe that their weight and appearance is different than what they are being told.  A person that is suffering from anorexia will put off compliments about their weight choosing to disagree outright or will simply not believe the compliment and continue to strive to lose weight. In this disorder, denial is a huge factor that helps the sufferer maintains their weight problem.  Denial is at the root of the disorder causing the individual never to be satisfied and to resort back to weight loss behaviors that keep the disorder going.

Treatments

The treatment for anorexia nervosa can range from therapy to medication and everything else in between it. One of the treatment options for individuals with anorexia is a cognitive therapy that has shown a lot of promise and success in treating individuals with anorexia. In treating anorexia, it depends a lot on the patient's motivation in wanting to get better which can cause a lot of frustration for a doctor that is trying to treat the individual. For the person to get better, they have to be motivated and committed to following through with the treatment that the doctor has set up, the plan that has been created.  Most people lack the drive or motivation to keep up with treatment and thus tend not to follow the plan set up. Denial again comes into play with the individual as the individual does not believe that there is anything wrong with them thus they do not want to follow through with a treatment plan. Sufferers of anorexia will rationalize symptoms of the disorder and become deceivers to themselves to continue doing what they can to continue with the weight loss.

The use of cognitive therapy to treat individuals with anorexia has shown great strides in assisting individuals to overcome anorexia symptoms. Riva, Bacchetta, Baruffi, Rinaldj, and Molinari (1999), state that the use of virtual reality or VR in studies has shown to be very effective in treating anorexia. People can use the VR equipment to simulate experiences in the real world exposing patients to encounters and situations that will over time desensitize them and thus lead to a decrease in behavioral tendencies of anorexia. With the use of cognitive therapy, it is relatively short term taking about eight weeks to complete and is a fully integrated approach that focuses on the individual's discovery and self-perception. This therapy will utilize the assistance of a clinical psychologist that works together with a cognitive behaviorist just in case there is a need for medication to be either administered or prescribed to the person. While going through therapy the psychologist may work in a group or individual setting to assist the individual in interaction with others that share similar experiences so the person will realize the experiences they have been not specific to just them (Gentile, 2010). 

When participating in the individual therapy the psychologist will create a plan that involves the individual meeting with a nutritionist weekly so that individual can develop healthy skills with eating.  The psychologists will also work in holding sessions weekly with the individual, using the VR equipment, holding supportive talks, doing weekly assessments, psychometric tests, and completing psychopharmacological assessments (Riva et. al., 1999). Using cognitive therapy has shown a lot of improvement in individuals suffering from anorexia as the individuals learn about not obsessing about food, the individuals learn about not obsessing with looks, and they are taught coping skills that allow them to strive for a healthy lifestyle. This treatment also benefits the doctors and patients by being able to motivate the individual to participate and work toward change as the skills being used and knowledge learned transfer directly into a person’s life after they are done with treatment. With the use of the virtual reality, people can experience real life situations that can directly impact the person's disorder. Additionally, the use of the virtual reality allows it to be programmed to each person in order to fit their specific needs and supports the feeling of the person being in control as it is highly immersive (Riva et. al., 1999). The therapist is also with the patient throughout the whole session with the VR, so they can assist them the entire time with the experiences that they have or if a problem comes up.

This treatment supports both advantages as well as disadvantages.  First the treatment is able to minimize distortion with the findings being more conclusive, and allows the person to experience as well as remember everything experienced while taking out the struggle of interaction with other individuals in the experiences. The downside however, is that the treatment can run around $10,000 or more and thus is expensive to afford for individuals.  Additionally, the treatment has not be run in other areas of psychology so there has been no comparison created in different approaches or the results of follow-up presented in order to display the long term efficacy of the virtual reality treatment (Riva et. al., 1999). In the studies that have been run the treatment when compared individually or with the use of medication has shown great strides in altering symptoms of people with anorexia nervosa. The treatment allows the person to face their perceptions and discuss them with a therapist, helping to improve the perceptions especially the one's concerning their body image and can help with changing the habits the patient has with food (Riva, et. al., 1999).

Pharmacological Treatments

Anorexia nervosa is a difficult disorder that can result in the relapse of a person many times because of the denial and combative nature that goes with the disorder. Kotler and Walsh (2000), state that anti-depressants have been used in cases of people suffering from Bulimia, which has been effective and may be a possible alternative treatment for people dealing with anorexia. In studies that have been done, double blinds with placebos and antidepressants, there had been no noticeable changes or results when it came to controlling a person's anorexia. In studies done with individuals that have relapsed though the results have shown great promise. One of the major symptoms of relapse is depression that the anti-depressants have been able to help control and thus present more favorable results for helping with anorexia in that stage of treatment (Kotler & Walsh, 2000). The anti-depressants can help control the person's depression and allow the individual to work through therapy to learn coping skills. There is a drawback to the medication in that it is still no cure, it only helps with the depression, and it has only been shown to help in the relapse phase of the disorder. The medicine can assist in helping the individual once they enter the relapse phase but still needs to be used in combination with other therapy methods and can't be used as a stand-alone method.

Alternative Therapeutic Treatment

Anorexia disorder is severe affecting a person both physically as well as mentally and can end up having a high rate of death in the individuals that suffer from it. Psychologists that have been treating individuals with anorexia have discovered that the use of replacing hormones to treat a psychiatric disturbance has been beneficial in the treatment of individuals with anorexia. During anorexia, the starvation the individual is doing becomes visible on their body outside, but the inside of the body is also damaged. Wheatland (2002), states that in the blood of a person with anorexia an endocrine feature is higher significantly than cortisol levels in the person as a result of the serve dieting, the purging of food, the excessive exercising, and the self-injury that the individual will do to themselves daily. In the research that was done, cortisol was given to sufferers of anorexia and was found to show significant improvement in the person suffering. While the cortisol levels may already be higher than normal and it seems weird to give more cortisol to a person Wheatland (2002), states that giving the additional cortisol allows the person to satisfy the cortisol requirement lowering the need to maintain the starving state that the person perceives they need to maintain and helps to treat the disorder.

An individual that doesn’t get treatment for the disorder continues to starve themselves then will break down and eat, this causes the person to feel guilty as their cortisol levels fall. Using the extra cortisol allows the individual to maintain the high need for cortisol while being able to satisfy their hunger without the guilt or need to purge the food (Wheatland, 2002). The extra cortisol also counteracts the behavioral issues associated with the disorder. Cortisol is a natural hormone that is in place in all individuals and associated with stress in people at higher levels. Anorexia produces high stress and low self-esteem increasing the levels of cortisol in the person as they push toward becoming the perfect person (Wheatland, 2002). Replacement therapy with this hormone allows for stress to be alleviated and reduction in the need to be perfect.

Conclusion

The eating disorder anorexia nervosa is classified as individuals that have a fear of weight gain and thus will over exercise or starves themselves or both to prevent them from gaining any weight. The disorder is typically seen as coming on in adolescence and doesn't really have a lot to do with food, but rather the person dealing with problems that are difficult in their life or emotions that are difficult so they deal with them in unhealthy ways. Anorexia is a serious eating disorder that can affect a person's psychological as well as physical health. The treatment for anorexia nervosa can range from therapy to medication and everything else in between it. One of the treatment options for individuals with anorexia is a cognitive therapy that has shown a lot of promise and success in treating individuals with anorexia. The use of cognitive therapy to treat individuals with anorexia has shown great strides in assisting individuals to overcome anorexia symptoms. Riva, Bacchetta, Baruffi, Rinaldj, and Molinari (1999), state that the use of virtual reality or VR in studies has shown to be very effective in treating anorexia. People can use the VR equipment to simulate experiences in the real world exposing patients to encounters and situations that will over time desensitize them and thus lead to a decrease in behavioral tendencies of anorexia. Anorexia nervosa is a difficult disorder that can result in the relapse of a person many times because of the denial and combative nature that goes with the disorder.

References

American Psychological Association. (2015). Retrieved from http://apa.org/helpcenter/eating.aspx

Breuner, C. (2010). Complementary, holistic, and integrative medicine: Eating disorders.           Pediatrics Review 31(75). 150-155.

Forman, S. (2011). Eating disorders: Epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical features. Retrieved                     from http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html.

Forman, S. (2011). Eating disorders: Treatment and outcome. Retrieved from             http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html.

Grave, R. (2011). Eating disorders: Progress and challenges. European Journal of Internal         Medicine 22(3). 153.

Gentile, M.G. (2010). Anorexia Nervosa: Identification, Main Characteristics and Treatment. Nutritional Therapy & Metabolism.

Kotler, L. A., Walsh, B. T. (2000). Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Pharmacological Therapies. Supplement 1, Vol. 9 p. 108

Mayo Clinic. (2012). Anorexia nervosa. Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-            conditions/anorexia/basics/symptoms/con-20033002

Riva, G., Bacchetta, M., Baruffi, M., Rinaldj, S., & Molinari, E. (1999). Virtual Reality Based. Experimental Cognitive Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa. P. 221-230. Retrieve from: http://www.vepsy.com/atnplab/flash_site/inglese/riva_anorexia_nervosa.pdf

Wheatland, R. (2002). The Endocrine Research Project. Medical Hypotheses. 59 (6): 710-5.

The Man without a Memory

This paper provides an analysis of the Man Without a Memory – Clive Wearing.  We will attempt to describe the relationship between learning and remembering it, memories; and how emotions are linked to our memories

Relationship Between Learning and Remembering It

The relationship between learning something and remembering is when one is learning they must remember how to do it again in order to complete the same task later on. If one learns something they do so by remembering how and repeating the process at which was taught or learned to do it right. Learning and remembering is a direct result of a person's memory and recall abilities because when one learns this information is stored to retrieve later at which is when one needs to remember both fall hand and hand with the ability to recall information. Memorization and learning have a relationship, because one will learn to do things based on encoding, storing, and retrieving information that one has seen, heard, or understood in their life at which is based on memory and recall. One's ability to learn and remember will also be based on brain functioning and ability to learn based on memory and comprehension.. 

Clive’s Brain Damage

The definition of learning involves "a change in the content or organization of long term memory and/or behavior."; while the definition of memory is "the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information". When it comes to the definition of learning, the first part of the definition focuses on what is known while the second focuses on concrete behavior. For example, many people will avoid foods that they consumed shortly before becoming ill due to both their memory and learning of that particular experience. Learning is not all knowledge based. For example, "we may experience the sales people in one store being nicer to us than those in the other. We thus may develop a preference for the one store over the other" (Perner, 2010, pg. 1) because of what is learned and remembered from the experience of that store.

Memory Loss for Clive

Clive memory loss was brought on by the onset of an untreated disease, which caused the loss of his short term memory. As a result of the various forms of Syphilis it has the potential to eat away at the brain. Clive loss was due to his hippocampus, which is the portion of the brain that is responsible for short-term memories. He can only recall events prior to the onset, and without short-term memory he is not able to create long-term memory. So his love and passion for the things that matter are due to the memories stored before the event

 Memories

Life without memories has to be a very lonely time.  Clive is only able to remember things for a few seconds.  One of the things that stood out the most is the inability to remember his son’s name.  Memories are part of our history and our being.  Without them, does one truly exist? That is the question that has to be the hardest to answer not only for Clive but for his family members.  As I ponder the question myself, I think about not being able to remember simple things such as how I sat down, what day it is, my child’s name, birthdays, and holidays.  Those few items would be extremely frustrating as well as depressing.  There is not one particular event that would be missed the most, it would be everything.  Life would not be the same. 

Emotions and Memories

The experiences that a person has gone through in life of specific events are the things that make up the person’s memory.  A person’s emotions are linked with their memories due to the emotions that they experienced associated with the event.  A person may display a change in memory resulting from a trauma in order to diminish the emotional pain related to the experience.  Trauma can impact the way memories are stored or determined in survivors of trauma which may stop the retrieval of memories and attempt to diminish the emotional distress associated with the trauma (Williams, 1996). Emotions that happen as a result of an event or stimuli can affect memory such as intrinsic details being better remembered than neutral items without emotional ties.  The ability to learn new information is one aspect of memory according to LeBar and Cabeza (2006), and emotional memory is another aspect which updates stimulus-punishment or reward paradigms.

Conclusion

Overall, life for Clive has changed dramatically since his illness.  Clive is able to recall certain events but not able to recall others.  An individual needs to have a healthy hippocampus in the brain in order to have the ability to learn, recall and retain information  

References

LaBar, K.S., and Cabeza, R. (2006). Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nature Review Neuroscience, 7, 54-64.

Perner, L. (2010).  Learning and Memory.  Department of Marketing, Marshall School of Business.  University of Southern California.  Retrieved from http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/cb Learning and Memory.html

Williams, J.M.G. (1996). Depression and the specificity of autobiographical memory. Cambridge University Press: New York, pp. 244-267.