Research-Based Interventions

There are a variety of different disorders that an individual may develop over the course of their lifetime. Many of the disorders have specific symptoms, different intervention methods, and different options available in order to treat the disorder for the betterment of the individual suffering from it.  Psychopathology has developed over the years through research in order to incorporate a lot of information and knowledge into what works for different disorders, how the disorders cause individuals to behave, and what symptoms may show which can lead to the diagnosis of a certain disorder.  Bipolar disorder is one of the disorders that an individual may develop which may impact the individual’s development in life.  Bipolar affects a person’s mood making it difficult for the individual to regulate between being happy, sad, depressed, or even just a regulated normal. This paper is going to evaluate three peer-reviewed research studies, conceptualizing the disorder using the biopsychosocial model, and discuss the treatment or intervention shown to be most effective for the disorder.

Bipolar Disorder

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (n.d.), bipolar disorder is classified as a mood disorder which affects man individuals regardless of age, gender, or even race and is characterized by episodes of depression and mania. This disorder affects a person neurologically and can impact their life by affecting the individual’s daily activities. An individual that is suffering from bipolar disorder will have drastic mood swings going from a severe depression to extreme happiness all within the space of as little as a matter of minutes.  The swing can happen suddenly and then the individual may spend hours to days in the next mood, being extremely happy for a long time or being so depressed they don’t eat or get out of bed for days. There are four types of bipolar including types 1 and 2, mixed, and rapid cycling bipolar disorder (National Institute of Mental Health, n.d.).

Bipolar disorder according to Altinbas, Smith, and Craddock, (2011), occurs almost equally between men and women, being more common in highly educated individuals, and accounts for the second leading cause of worldwide disability. Bipolar disorder is different from major depression which only deals with depression where bipolar deals with both depressive and manic episodes that may change within minutes. The suicide rate for individuals suffering from bipolar disorder is 15% with roughly about 2.6% of the adult population of the United States suffering from the disorder according to Altinbas et. al. (2011). Bipolar disorder may affect more of the population but is hard to get a real number on since a lot of individuals don’t see the manic episodes as being abnormal or that there is anything wrong with it so they tend to not report the manic side of their symptoms.

In bipolar disorder individuals may experience a difference in cycles depending on the type of bipolar the individual has.  A person with mixed bipolar for instance may experience mania to normal behavior to depression cycles, or they individual may experience cycles between the depression and normal behavior or mania and normal behavior (Merikangas, Jin, & He, 2011). The patterns or episodes of the moods and the swings can happen quickly and last for a period of time from a few days to weeks or months before the cycle to another mood hits again. Some of the common symptoms associated with bipolar disorder include “decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, talkativeness, inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, distractibility, increased physical, mental, sexual activity, or reckless behavior” (Bipolar Disorder and Genetics, n.d., para. 3). Other symptoms that can be noted include having visions or delusions, hearing voices, strange behaviors, and having episodes of mood swings.

Biopsychosocial Model

There is no known cause of bipolar disorder though there are theories about how the disorder is triggered in individuals. Genetic studies which have been done have shown transmission of bipolar in first-degree relatives places twice the risk of developing bipolar disorder when compared with the general population (Bipolar Disorder and Genetics, n.d.). Individuals with first-degree relatives such as a mother or father with bipolar are at a higher risk of developing the disorder themselves when compared to individuals whose first-degree relatives do not have the disorder. This does not mean that an individual who has with family having the disorder will themselves develop the disorder only that studies have shown a higher percentage for development when compared with individuals without the disorder in their family (Bipolar Disorder and Genetics, n.d.).

An individual may develop bipolar for a number of neurological reasons including a certain viral infection or a toxin, physical changes to a person’s brain, imbalance of neurotransmitters and hormones in the individual, and periods of elevated stress (The Mayo Clinic Staff, 2012). Neurotransmitter imbalance is one of the main causes believed to lead to the development of bipolar disorder. As an individual is unable to control the chemicals in their brain that regulate their moods cycling between mania and depression may result. According to the Mayo Clinic Staff (2012), another cause shown in studies could be physical changes in a person’s brain which have been viewed through the use of fMRI and PET scans of individuals suffering from bipolar disorder. The scans done on individuals with the disorder when compared to healthy individuals has found that individuals with bipolar disorder typically have small, less functioning prefrontal cortexes (The Mayo Clinic Staff, 2012).  Since the prefrontal cortex of an individual develops during the individual’s adolescent years the abnormal development may point to the reason the disorder is often seen emerging in adolescence and it may provide reasoning for the development of the disorder.

Treatments for Bipolar Disorder

The treatment for bipolar disorder includes a combination of medication and therapy.  Medications are given in order to help stabilize a person’s mood swings, typically antidepressants, mood stabilizers, and antipsychotics are provided in order to stabilize the common symptoms and moods of the disorder (Sachs, 2000). Common medications provided include Lithium which is a mood stabilizer, Depakote to treat mania, antidepressants like Fluoxetine or Sertraline, and antipsychotics to relieve symptoms of severe mania (Sachs, 2000). The medication is only part of the treatment for an individual suffering from bipolar; therapy is the other part that helps an individual with the disorder. Commonly used therapy which is effective for individuals suffering from the disorder include CBT, cognitive behavioral therapy, which helps to teach an individual how to change negative thoughts or harmful behavior patterns into positive ones, family-focused therapy, which gives support to the family teaching how the to cope with the disorder and improve communication as well as problem-solving strategies, and psychoeducation which provides the sufferer with information and education about the disorder (Sachs, 2000).  The most effective treatments that work well for individuals is to combine medications with therapy in order to stabilize moods while gain coping skills, getting education on the disorder, and learning how to communicate and improve social interactions.

Conclusion

Bipolar disorder is one of the disorders that an individual may develop which may impact the individual’s development in life.  Bipolar affects a person’s mood making it difficult for the individual to regulate between being happy, sad, depressed, or even just a regulated normal. Bipolar disorder according to Altinbas, Smith, and Craddock, (2011), occurs almost equally between men and women, being more common in highly educated individuals, and accounts for the second leading cause of worldwide disability. The patterns or episodes of the moods and the swings can happen quickly and last for a period of time from a few days to weeks or months before the cycle to another mood hits again. Some of the common symptoms associated with bipolar disorder include “decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, talkativeness, inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, distractibility, increased physical, mental, sexual activity, or reckless behavior” (Bipolar Disorder and Genetics, n.d., para. 3).

The treatment for bipolar disorder includes a combination of medication and therapy.  Medications are given in order to help stabilize a person’s mood swings, typically antidepressants, mood stabilizers, and antipsychotics are provided in order to stabilize the common symptoms and moods of the disorder (Sachs, 2000). Commonly used therapy which is effective for individuals suffering from the disorder include CBT, cognitive behavioral therapy, which helps to teach an individual how to change negative thoughts or harmful behavior patterns into positive ones, family-focused therapy, which gives support to the family teaching how the to cope with the disorder and improve communication as well as problem-solving strategies, and psychoeducation which provides the sufferer with information and education about the disorder (Sachs, 2000). 

References

Altinbas, K., Smith, D. J., & Craddock, N. (2011). Rediscovering the Bipolar Spectrum. Archives of Neuropsychiatry, 167-170.

Bipolar Disorder and Genetics. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://bipolar.hs.columbia.edu/disgenet.htm

Merikangas, K.R., Jin R., & He, J. (2011).  Prevalence and Correlates of Bipolar Spectrum Disorder in the World Mental Health Survey Initiative. Arch Gen )sychiatry. 68(3):241-251. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.12.

National Institutes of Mental Health. (n.d.). National Institutes of Mental Health. Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/bipolar-disorder/index.shtml

Sachs, C. K. (2000). The Treatment of Bipolar Depression. Bipolar Disorders, 256-260.

The Mayo Clinic Staff. (2012, January 18). Bipolar Disorder. Retrieved from The Mayo Clinic : http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bipolar-disorder/ds00356

Psychopathology

Psychopathology looks to understand better the mental disorders that can affect a person by understanding the factors and aspects at work such as genetics, social causes, biological, and even psychological factors. There are a variety of different ways that an individual may develop a mental disorder, and the study of psychopathology focuses on these ways so that there is a better understanding of the developing and thus a better idea on how to treat the mental disorders that arise in individuals. Psychopathology is not just the study of the disorders but in some cases may also be a disorder, mentally or behaviorally, in itself that impacts a person.  In this case, the psychopathology is a disorder which can impair or affect the functioning of a person's mind overall.  This paper will discuss the causes of psychopathology as they apply to the mental disorder of an individual by providing a brief overview looking into the culture as a factor that determines the expression of the psychopathology. This paper will also cover and examine psychopathology by looking into the biopsychosocial as well as the diathesis-stress model, by exploring as well the changes in society that are perceived by psychopathology in the functions of a period in time. 

Culture and Psychopathology

When it comes to psychopathology, it can influence how an individual behaves in real life experiences and situations. This is because there is a very close connection between a person's body and their mind. According to Berrios (1996), there isn't a single cause of psychopathology but different cultures do hold different perceptions about it. Some cultures may hold the view that it is caused by supernatural events and powers such as God or witchcraft being responsible. In the past, most cultures believed that mental illness in a person was the sign of an evil spirit or a possession of the mind by something evil. In the past, a hole would be bored into a person's head to create an exit point that would allow the evil thing in the person's mind to be released. Individuals in different cultures have different ways of displaying behavior which has developed over time and thus when mental illness arises there are different symptoms based on the differences in behavior. For instance, in western cultures, a person with schizophrenia can be seen displaying different behaviors such as walking for long periods of times in the sun with stopping from exhaustion. These individuals may also stand for long periods of time or sit for long periods of time in the blazing here without a change in bodily position. This can be seen in a western culture as a sign or symptom of a development of a mental illness.

Presently many different cultures have dropped the thinking of the past when it comes to the causes and expression of psychopathological disorders. Maddux (2005), states that many different models have emerged which have attempted to explain different psychopathologies. The biomedical model, for instance, attempts to explain the cause of psychopathologies from a medical standpoint. Additionally, nowadays individuals that behave in abnormal ways are no longer seen as evil but rather believed to possibly display a mental disorder. Since individuals, today may live different life styles development of mental disorders or the development of psychopathology is seen and treated like any development of a mental disorder, as a common experience for individuals.

Biopsychosocial

Keating (1991), states that several factors have been discovered to be related to mental disorders including biological factors, environmental factors, and psychological factors.  Certain factors such as biological and environmental factors have been found to be a few of the things that cause psychopathology in an individual. Biological factors consist of a person’s genetic makeup that can be passed from generation to generation. The genes that a parent passes down to their child can carry genetic makeup of a disorder which can develop in the child later on in life. The disorders may or may not develop into a person, but can be passed along all the same making the person predisposed to the development of the disorder.  Gazzaniga and Heatherton (2006), state that a person's physical makeup of their brain can also give the person a predisposition to the development of a psychopathological disorder.  For instance, if the individual's brain for whatever reason develops abnormally at any stage this can lead to the individual developing a mental disorder as a result of the abnormal development. The chemicals or neurotransmitters in the brain abnormally being processed also may lead do mental disorder according to Gazzaniga and Heatherton (2006), that state the chemicals found in the brain may at times be found to be at varying levels that are abnormal for what they should be in order to process different functions and may result in mental illnesses from the fluctuation in the chemicals. A person releasing large amounts of cortisol, the stress hormone, may make the person develop a few disorders such as depression or anxiety disorders.

Environmental factors can also play a role in the development of psychopathological disorders and entail life events such as physical traumas that can occur at any time in a person’s life. Injuries to an individual’s mind caused by accidents can cause a person to develop different diseases or disorders in life.  For instance, an individual that has gotten into a serious car accident may start forgetting life events and having issues with long-term memory.  An alteration or an injury to the structures of the person’s brain causes the individual to be unable to remember long-term events and may impact the individual’s ability to make new memories. Other environmental factors that might impact the individual include how the individual is raised such as growing up in an environment in which there is a lack of empathy or care from parental figures. Environments that are harsh for the individual growing up can cause undue stress on the person due to the lack of care they receive and cause the person to lack in feelings of security, love, and belongingness.  This can trigger a wide range of things including stress and confusing causing the person to develop a low self-esteem and self-confidence as a result (Maddux, 2005). Additionally, environments that are harsh for the individual growing up produce little opportunities for the individual in life and little support conditioning the individual overtime to behave in different ways from normal standards and developing mental disorders as a result of this.

Psychological factors are the final factors which can contribute to the development of psychopathological disorders in an individual.  Some of these factors include a person’s conflict between their unconscious mind and their conscious one. This can lead individuals to development of mental disorders from the fact that consciously the individual is thinking about and wanting to do one thing while unconsciously they are doing another. Instances like this may cause untold stress in the person resulting in the development of anxiety disorders.

Conclusion

Psychopathology is not just the study of the disorders but in some cases may also be a disorder, mentally or behaviorally, in itself that impacts a person.  In this case the psychopathology is a disorder which can impair or affect the functioning of a person’s mind overall.  When it comes to psychopathology it can influence how an individual behaves in real life experiences and situations. This is due to the fact that there is a very close connection between a person’s body and their mind. Biological factors consist of a person’s genetic makeup that can be passed from generation to generation. The genes that a parent passes down to their child can carry genetic makeup of a disorder which can develop in the child later on in life. Environmental factors can also play a role in the development of psychopathological disorders and entail life events such as physical traumas that can occur at any time in a person’s life. Injuries to an individual’s mind caused by accidents can cause a person to develop different diseases or disorders in life. Psychological factors are the final factors which can contribute to the development of psychopathological disorders in an individual. 

References

Berrios, G.E. (1996). The history of mental symptoms: Descriptive psychopathology since the        19^th century. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Berrios, G. E. (1999). Classifications in psychiatry: A conceptual history. Australian and New        Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 33(2): 145-60.

Gazzaniga, M. S. & Heatherton, T. F. (2006). Psychological Science, New York: W.W. Norton                 & Company, Inc.

Keating, D. P. (1991). Constructivist perspectives on developmental psychopathology and atypical development. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Maddux, J. E. (2005). Psychopathology: Foundations for a contemporary understanding.    Lawrence Erlbaum. 

History and Theory

In the views of Freud all human behavior was motivated or driven by instinct revolving around sexual instinct, aggression, a person’s need for love, self-preservation, and attaining pleasure while avoiding pain. To Freud the unconscious mind of the person played a large role in the person’s drives and motivations being responsible for nearly everything a person did. Rogers took a different approach with his theory that individuals were good people innately and that the nature of humans was to trust in their ability for growth and development in a manner that was constructive if their conditions were conducive to fostering the development.  Rogers believed that human nature was impacted by societal and environmental factors which could impact the positive person and cause problems if something negative were to happen to the individual. This paper will cover two articles that investigate the theory of Freud and the theory of Rogers in regards to human nature, explaining the views of human nature, what aspects of the theories might be different if the individuals were alive and working today, and finally explaining how social and cultural factors influenced the development of Freud’s and Roger’s theories of personality.

Articles and Respective Theories

            The theories that both Freud and Rogers developed are still applicable today. Freud’s work led to the creation of a psychological paradigm in which the field of psychoanalysis was based and developed on (Stea, 2012).  Freud began his work and theory of psychoanalysis after working with neurologist Charcot and coming to the belief that hysteria may be caused by emotional disturbances and may have been causes by an organic set of symptoms in a person’s nervous system (Stea, 2012). In a lot of psychologists’ views of Freud’s work on psychoanalysis the belief is that the work links to perceptions that have been developed for the purpose of treatment of individuals therapeutically in regards to different disorders. Freud did not start out to develop this theory that way however and looked to understanding the causes behind the disorders first.  Freud’s theory and methods developed as time went on and he developed methods for treating individuals with disorders through that administration of his psychoanalytic method.  The focal point of Freud’s work was on the psychoanalysis which is still used today in psychiatry and psychology based on the foundations that Freud developed when developing his theory (Psychoanalysis, 2011).

            Roger’s theory became known as the person-centered theory or psychotherapy, which has provided the world of psychology with invaluable discoveries as a result (Cooper, & McLeod, 2011). Roger’s had a lot of respect for Freud but disagreed with him in certain areas such as in the areas of development, maturing, and self-actualization that a person went through in their life time. Rogers also broke away from Freud’s view that all conflicts in a person’s life arose from a problem in childhood (Cervone & Pervin, 2013). In the view of Rogers an individual strives throughout their life to develop self-actualization, coming to know themselves. In a therapy setting Rogers did not believe that this awareness that was given was psychotherapy but rather that it was helping to counsel a person and that because of this a relationship must be forged between patient and medical professional, the doctor-patient relationship (Cooper, & McLeod, 2011). In Rogers mind the view between this relationship was more person to person rather than anything else, where both doctor and client do the talking.  This was a break from Freud’s only the client is the one doing the talking, also known as free association. Rogers felt if a person was to truly get help that they needed guidance in the conversation rather than relying on whatever popped into their mind (Cooper, & McLeod, 2011).

Emerging Theories Today

            Freud directed his theory to childhood problems as he believed that in childhood, especially early childhood; this was a crucial developmental time for individuals and the key to understanding the psyche of a person. Freud developed the conclusion that conflicts that happened as an adult for a person were not because of the conflicts in adulthood but rather the result of childhood conflicts that had gone unresolved into adulthood. According to Psychoanalysis (2011), this belief provided the field of psychoanalysis with a lot of different theories on development of an individual as psychologists began to develop psychological theories that explained and understood that childhood conflicts could go unresolved and affect a person later in life. Many individuals that have been abused as children develop problems later in life as a result of not coming to terms with the abuse, Freud’s theory allowed for the understanding of this.

In the approach that Rogers developed the client and the psychologist both do talking, rather than solely the client such as in Freud’s free association. Rogers also believed in a distant approach with a client so the individual realized that they were not talking to a friend, but he insisted on using the word client instead of patient so they also knew that they were not suffering from a biological illness (Cervone & Pervin, 2013). The person-centered approach is highly recognized in benefiting clients and in a therapy practice.   Much of the foundation of Rogers for the therapy sessions has remained intact and is still used in the treatment of individuals today. The focus on the individual’s grow throughout their lifetime as well as the using past experiences for learning and development to become a better person were important themes in Rogers theory.  Rogers focused on individuals as unique and different from one another, obtaining their own individuality as they developed in life (Cooper, and McLeod, 2011).

Conclusion

The theories developed by both Freud and Rogers have had a strong impact on the field of psychology today especially in regards to the therapy of individuals.  Both provided solid theories on individuals and how to best help individuals with conflicts in adulthood.  Freud believed in the free association of allowing a person to talk about anything while placing importance on the fact that childhood conflicts could impact an individual in adulthood. Rogers believed in more of a client to doctor relationship in which both parties are talking and didn’t place as much emphasis on a person’s development as stemming from childhood.  Rogers believed that a person continuously grew and developed throughout their life and that conflicts arising in adulthood were because of issues in adulthood rather than in childhood.  Both theories have greatly impacted the field of psychology and the understanding of individuals, allowing for better treatment of people’s problems and understanding of their behaviors as well as personalities.

References

Cooper, M., & McLeod, J. (2011). Person-centered therapy: A pluralistic perspective. Person-

Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies, 10(3), 210-223. Doi:10.1080/14779757.2011.599517

 Cervone, D., & Pervin, L. A. (2013). Personality: Theory and research (12th ed.). Danvers, MA: Wiley

Tubert-Oklander, J. (2011). Lost in Translation: A Contribution to Intercultural Understanding.

Canadian Journal of Psychoanalysis, 19(1), 144-168.

Psychoanalysis. (2011). Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition, 1.

Stea, J.N., (2012). “Freud’s Conceptualization of the Social World: Psychology Recapitulating

Sociology or Sociology Recapitulating Psychology?” Europe’s Journal of Psychology 8, no. 1:182-202.